relationship between globalization and education
The area of educational research which exploded at the turn of the 21st century requires a holistic view. Globalisation, Societies and Education aims to fill The foregoing sections have explored this general field, major debates, and topics; the relationships have been traced between globalization and education; and there have been brief comments on considerations for research. For some, globalization is a powerful force for poverty reduction and has led to leaps in life A diversity of practices and views also marks this area of education, resulting in general ambiguity about overall aims and best means. 75. Students have more choices when it comes to learning independently or alongside peers, mentors, or experts, in a range of disciplines, vocations, and fields. In developed societies, environmental sustainability has come to be seen as a pressing global issue worth curricular focus, as behaviors with regard to consumption of natural resources impact others around the world, as well as future generations.68. In fields of comparative and international education and global studies in education, scholars are increasingly calling today for theories and empirical investigations that are oriented toward specificity, particularity, and locality, in contrast with the grand theories of globalization elaborated by political scholars. 65. Comparative education became a major field of educational inquiry in the first half of the 20th century, and expanded in the 1950s and 1960s.43 Comparative educational research then focused on aiding developing countries education and improving domestic education through cross-national examinations of educational models and achievement. P. Kennedy (2011), Local lives and global transformations: Towards a world society (London: Palgrave). True (Eds.) Freires postcolonial view remains salient to those who remain concerned that local languages and indigenous cultural preservation are being sacrificed for elite national and international interests.52 There can be no doubt that language diversity has been decreasing over time, while indigenous knowledge is being reframed within globalist culture as irrelevant to individual youths material needs.53 Many are additionally skeptical of the sometimes uncritical adoption of educational practices, policies, and discourse from one region of the globe to another. As globalization of education entails the globalization of knowledge itself, such inquiries can be directed to various sites and disciplines outside of education, in considering how communication, values, and knowledge are being dynamically revised today on a global scale through processes of globalization. Gender and employment aspects were addressed throughout this work. For instance, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri argue that a faceless power impersonally oppresses grassroots people despite the so-called productivity of globalization (that is, the growth of capital it enables) from a capitalist economic orientation.29 It is this faceless but perceived inhumane power that has fueled globalization protests, particularly of the meetings of the World Trade Organization in the 1990s and 2000s, in the United States and Europe. At the broadest level, globalization can be defined as a process or condition of the cultural, political, economic, and technological meeting and mixing of people, ideas, and resources, across local, national, and regional borders, which has been largely perceived to have increased in intensity and scale during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Culturally, this can include homogenization and loss of indigenous knowledge, and ways of life, or cultural clashes that are seen to arise out of the processes of relativization and emulation in some cases. 5. 5985) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong). Competing understandings of globalization also undergird diverse methodologies and perspectives in expanding fields of research into the relationship between education and globalization. Scholars often pursue the topic by examining globalizations perceived impact on education, as in many cases global convergence around educational policies, practices, and values has been observed in the early 21st century. Instead, education has been reframed in the global era as something youth needs, not just to accept globalization but to interact with it in a critical and autonomous fashion. In research universities, educational borrowing across international borders became one significant topic of research for an emerging field of scholars identified as comparative educational researchers. The second kind of skepticism tends to embrace the idea of globalization, but regards its impact on people, communities, and/or the planet as negative or risky, overall. Geographies of knowledge and curricular practices, Higher Education, 115. We use the model to investigate whether allowing governments to bail out banks is optimal. Additionally, how these skills, competencies, and dispositions intersect with the cognitive skills and political views of education across societies with different cultures of teaching and learning also remains contentious. As Martha Nussbaum has argued, educators should work to develop in students feelings of compassion, altruism, and empathy that extend beyond national borders.62 Kathy Hytten has likewise written that students need to learn today as part of global citizenship education not just feelings of sympathy for people around the world, but critical skills to identify root causes of problems that intersect the distinction of local and global, as local problems can be recognized as interconnected with globalization processes.63 In relation to this, UNESCO and nongovernmental organizations and foundations such as Oxfam and the Asia Society have focused on exploring current practices and elaborating best practices from a global comparative standpoint for the dissemination of noncognitive, affective, transversal 21st-century competencies, to extend civic education in the future in the service of social justice and peace, locally and globally.64. With the rise of global standardized tests such as the OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), educational discourse in Western societies has increasingly emphasized the need to reorient education to East Asian models (such as Singapore or Shanghai), seen as victors of the tests.50 On the other hand, many see Finlands educational system as ideal in relation to its economic integration in society and focus on equity in structure and orientation, and thus educators in the Middle East, East Asia, and the United States have also been seen to consider emulating Finnish education in the 2010s.51, Evaluations: From a normative point of view, some regard changes to local education in many contexts brought about by globalization as harmful and risky. In either case, cultural assumptions can interfere or interact in problematic or unintentional ways with methodologies of data gathering and analysis, for instance, when questions or codes (related to race, ethnicity, or class, for example) are applied across diverse sites by researchers, who may not be very familiar and experienced across divergent cultural contexts.76 Thus, beyond positionality, the use of collaborative research teams has become popular in global and comparative educational research, to ensure inevitable cultural and related differences across research domains are sufficiently addressed in the research process.77 In this context, researchers must also contend with the challenges of collaborating across educational settings, as new methods of engaging, saving, and sharing data at distance through technology continue to unfold in response to ongoing challenges with data storage, data security, and privacy. S. Walby (2009), Globalization and inequalities (London: SAGE). 55. G. Mathews (2011), Ghetto at the center of the world (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press). Transformationalist views: Globalization is increasingly seen by educators (among others) around the globe to have both positive and negative impacts on communities and individuals. Globalization, Education and Social Justice. F. Fukuyama (1992), The end of history and the last man (London: Free Press). 70. Jackson, Education for Sustainable Development. See for instance J. Stier (2004), Taking a critical stance toward internationalization ideologies in higher education: idealism, instrumentalism and educationalism, Globalisation, Societies and Education, 2, 128. 13. The first was a study of how globalization has been transforming the faculty labor market in two-year community colleges ( Mitchell, Nielsen & Batie, 2011 ). Alternatively, some argue that the focus on globalization in research, theorization, and popular discourse fails to recognize the agency of people and communities as actors in the world today, and for this reason should be avoided and replaced by a focus on the transnational. As Michael Peter Smith articulates, ordinary individual people, nation-states, and their practices remain important within the so-called global system; a theory of faceless, ahistorical globalization naturalizes global processes and precludes substantive elaboration of how human (and national) actors have played and continue to play primary roles in the world through processes of knowledge and value construction, and through interpersonal and transnational activities.22, The second strand of globalization skepticism might be referred to as antiglobalist or antiglobalization positions. 125143) (Malden, MA: Blackwell). M. Castells (1996), The rise of the network society (Oxford: Blackwell). Many world leaders across Eurasia looked at other civilizations with curiosity, and began increasing intercultural and international interactions to benefit from cultural mixing, through trade, translation of knowledge, and more. Credentials can be earned from reputable universities online, with supervision systems organized by leading scholars in global studies in education in many cases. I. Wallerstein (2000), Globalization or the age of transition? Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Research that focuses on globalization and education uses a wide array of approaches and methods, topics, and orientations, as well as diverse theoretical perspectives and normative assumptions. As Fazal Rizvi and Bob Lingard note, these are ideal types, rather than clearly demarcated practical parties or camps of theorists, though they have become familiar and themselves a part of the social imaginary of globalization (that is, the way globalization is perceived in normative and empirical ways by ordinary people rather than researchers).21 The positions are also reflected in the many educational discourses relating to globalization, despite their ideological rather than simply empirical content. That the processes associated with globalization are interrelated with the history and future of education is undeniable. Today, comparative education remains one major field among others that focuses on globalization and education, including international education and global studies in education. In place of dichotomous systems in terms of academic levels and credentialing, curriculum, and assessment, increasing convergence can be observed today, as it is recognized that standardization makes movement of people in education across societies more readily feasible, and that such movement of people can enhance education in a number of ways (to achieve diversity, to increase specialization and the promotion of dedicated research centers, to enhance global employability, and so on).45 Thus, the mobility and paths of movement of students and academics, for education and better life opportunities, have been a rapidly expanding area of research. 77. A first question is whether concepts of altruism, empathy, and even harmony, peace, and justice, are translatable, with equivalent meanings across cultural contexts. 71. Globalization and education are highly interrelated from a historical view. In the same way as culturally oriented globalization scholars, those theorizing from an economic and/or political perspective conceive the processes of globalization emerging most substantively in the 15th and 16th centuries, through the development of the capitalist world economic system and the growth of British- and European-based empires holding vast regions of land in Africa, Asia, and the Americas as colonies to enhance trade and consumption within empire capitals. 51. See, for instance, H. Tange and S. Miller (2015), Opening the mind? 404323 bce) in Ancient Greece famously identifying as a citizen of the world.8 This suggests that realization of commonality, common humanity, and the risks of patriotism and nationalism as responses to relativization and emulation have enabled at least a thin kind of global consciousness for a very long time, as a precursor to todays popular awareness of globalization, even if such a global consciousness was in ancient history framed within regional rather than planetary discourse. Rather than take sides within this contentious field, it is useful to examine major debates and trends, and indicate where readers can learn more about particular specialist areas within the field and other relevant strands of research. Technoscapes enable (and limit) interactions of peoples, cultures, and resources through technology, while finanscapes reflect intersection values and valuations; human, capital, and national resources; and more. 26. Elites remain most able to utilize online courses and use technologies due to remaining inequalities in material and human resources.59 At local levels, globalization in education (more typically discussed as internationalization) remains contentious in many societies, as local values, local students and educators, and local educational trends can at times be positioned as at odds with the priorities of globalization, of internationalizing curricula, faculty, and student bodies. 268289) (Oxford: Blackwell). To a certain extent, ethical standards for surgical care are bound by both culture and custom. B. Barber (1995), Jihad versus McWorld (New York: Random House). The Reports on the Secretariats Knowledge Network Meetings are available on the Commissions web site or in a special publication from the ILO (ISBN 92-2-115711-1). 85121) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong). It is to the relationship of globalization to education that we now turn. However, these processes are uneven, and they can be seen to impact different communities in various ways, which are clearly not, on the whole, simply all good or all bad. There is evidence that global citizenship education aimed at educating for values to face the potential harms of globalization is converging around the world on such aims as instilling empathy and compassion, respect and appreciation of diversity, and personal habits or virtues of open-mindedness, curiosity, and creativity. According to Immanuel Wallersteins world system theory, which emerged before globalization theory, in the 1970s, the capitalist world economic system is one of the most essential framing elements of the human experience around the world in the modern (or postmodern) era.9 Interaction across societies primarily for economic purposes, not bounded by a unitary political structure, characterizes the world economy, as well as a capitalist order, which conceives the main purpose of international economic exchange as being the endless generation and accumulation of capital.10 A kind of global logic was therein introduced, which has expanded around the globe as we now see ourselves as located within an international financial system. Such research may consider the practices and patterns of movement, collaboration, research production and publication, and authorship of researchers, and examine data from cultural, political, and economic perspectives, asking whose knowledge is regarded as valid and most prized, and what voices dominate in conversations and discourse around globalization and education, such as in classrooms studying global studies in education, or in leading research journals.78 Related research emerging includes questions such as who produces knowledge, who is the subject of knowledge, and where are data gathered, as recurring historical patterns may appear to be reproduced in contemporary scholarship, wherein those from the global North are more active in investigating and elaborating knowledge in the field, while those from the global South appear most often as subjects of research. 40. Thus, what we commonly see around the world today as education, mass schooling of children, could be regarded as a first instance of globalizations impact on education, as in many non-Western contexts traditional education had been conceived as small-scale, local community-based, and as vocational or apprenticeship education, and/or religious training.39 In much of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the indigenous Americas and Australasia, institutionalized formal schools emerged for the first time within colonial or (often intersecting) missionary projects, for local elite youth and children of expatriate officials. M. P. Smith (2001), Transnational urbanism: Locating globalization (Oxford: Blackwell). L. Jackson (2015), Comparing race, class, and gender, in Bray, Adamson, and Mason (Eds. The globalization of healthcare, however, has resulted in the transcendence of medical care beyond regional and cultural borders and is associated with new ethical dilemmas. What is globalization in education perspective? Globalization Theory, The Role of Education In popular discourse, globalization is often synonymous with internationalization, referring to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the world. Globalization makes it easier for businesses. - Globalization creates and supports information technologists, policy makers, and practitioners for the purpose of rethinking education and supports mechanisms for the exchange of ideas and experiences in the use of educational technologies. - Globalization encourages explorations, experimentation 34. As democracy becomes popular around the world as a result of global communication processes, Scott Burchill has argued that universal human rights can be achieved to enhance global freedom in the near future.34 Joseph Stiglitz likewise envisioned a democratizing globalization that can include developing countries on an equal basis and transform economic beings to human beings with values of community and social justice.35 Relatedly, some globalists contend against skeptics that cultural and economic-political or ideological hybridity and glocalization, as well as homogenization or cultural clashes, often can and do take place. S. Burchill (2009), Liberalism, in S. Burchill, A. Linklater, R. Devetak, J. Donnelly, T. Nardin, M. Paterson, C. Reus-Smit, and J. Understandings of globalization thus link to education in normative and empirical ways within research. Particularly with regard to the proposed benefits of interconnectivity and networked ubiquitous knowledge spurred by technology, critics contend that the promise of globalization for enhancing education has been severely overrated. WebBailouts can help relax financial frictions and boost output during banking crises but also increase government debt. There is no shortage of normative and explanatory theories about globalization, each of which points to particular instances and evidence about domains and contexts of globalization. Shifting Funding Patterns and The Privatization of Higher Education IrelandSouth Africa school links, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 44, 522544. 195220). WebAs part of the globalization process, the spread of education is widely viewed as contributing to democratization throughout the world. Globalization and education are interrelated from a historical view. (2000), The global transformation reader: An introduction to the globalization debate (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity). The truth regarding how globalization processes and practices are impacting contemporary education no doubt lies in focusing somewhere in between the promises and the risks, depending on the context in question: the society, the educational level, the particular community, and so on. Global citizenship education: Global citizenship education has been conceived by political theorists and educational philosophers as a way to speak back to globalization processes seen as harmful to individuals and communities. S. J. Shin (2009), Bilingualism in schools and society (London: Routledge); H. Norberg-Hodge (2009), Ancient futures: Lessons from Ladakh for a globalizing world (San Francisco: Sierra Club). ), Comparative education research, 421. 27. Though some identify world system theory as an alternative or precursor to globalization theories (given Wallersteins own writing, which distinguished his view from globalization views11), its focus on a kind of planetary global logic interrelates with globalization theories emerging in the 1980s and 1990s.12 Additionally, its own force and popularity in public and academic discussions enabled the kind of global consciousness and sense of global interrelation of people which we can regard as major assumptions underpinning the major political-economic theories of globalization and the social imaginary of globalization13 that came after. As with globalization generally, globalization in education cannot be merely described as harmful or beneficial, but depends on ones position in power relations, and on ones values and priorities for local and global well-being. In the following pages, when we speak of the relationship between globalization and education, we will thus refer to a series of mutual influences that George Ritzer coined the term McDonaldization to refer to the problematic elements of the rise of a so-called global culture.23 More than simply the proliferation of McDonalds fast-food restaurants around the world, McDonaldization, according to Ritzer, includes a valuation of efficiency over humanity in production and consumption practices, a focus on quantity over quality, and control and technology over creativity and culture. F. Rizvi (2009), Global mobility and the challenges of educational policy and research, in T. S. Popkewitz and F. Rizvi (Eds. 39. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. 5785), Theories of international relations (New York: Palgrave Macmillan). Clearly, specificity is important to understand globalization in relation to education. However, when it comes to understanding the interconnections of globalization and education, some consensus regarding best practices for research has emerged. This special issue showcases the Gordian knot between organisations and globalisation in education and exposes the organisational infrastructure of globalisation There are many ways to frame the relationship of globalization and 6. One key point of the analysis has been that the way globalization is conceived has implications for how its relationship with education is understood. Additionally, the importance of migration in the context of globalization is discussed. The relationship between globalization and development is contested. Though in each country decision-making structures are not exactly the same, many societies face pressure to focus on math, science, and languages over other subjects, as a result of the primacy of standardized testing to measure and evaluate educational achievement and the effectiveness of educational systems.49, However, there remains controversy over what education is the best in the context of relativization and emulation of educational practices and students, and therefore the 2010s have seen extraordinary transfers of educational approaches, not just from core societies to peripheral or developing areas, but significant horizontal movements of educational philosophies and practices from West to East and East to West. Abstract. L. Jackson (2015), Challenges to the global concept of student-centered learning with special reference to the United Arab Emirates: Never Fail a Nahayan, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47, 760773. Education systems in the Fiji and the Pacific are characteristically informed and influenced by external push and pull factors which are reflective of globalization It is essential to understand the history of global surgery and its In relation, lifelong learning, learning to be adaptive to challenges outside the classroom and not merely to gain academic disciplinary knowledge, has become a focal point for education systems around the globe in the era of globalization.48 Along with privatization of education, as markets are seen as more efficient than government systems of provision, models of educational choice and educational consumption have become normalized as alternatives to the historical status quo of traditional academic or intellectual, teacher-centered models. (1995), The post-colonial studies reader (London: Routledge). Global and transnational processes and practices have been observed to influence and impact various aspects of contemporary education within many geographical contexts, and thus the fields of research related to education and globalization are vast: they are not contained simply within one field or subfield, but can be seen to cross subdisciplinary borders, in policy studies, curriculum, pedagogy, higher education studies, assessment, and more. WebCompeting understandings of globalization also undergird diverse methodologies and perspectives in expanding fields of research into the relationship between education and globalization. T. Besley (2012), Narratives of intercultural and international education: Aspirational values and economic imperatives, in T. Besley and M. A. Peters (Eds. P. Vare and W. Scott (2007), Learning for change: Exploring the relationship between education and sustainable development, Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 1, 191198. Most today would describe this education as not part of an overall development project belonging to local communities, but as a foreign intervention for global empire maintenance or social control. 17. 41. 57. ), Handbook of research on applied learning theory and design in modern education (pp. 72. Fez Global education is defined as an educational approach that aims at introducing global issues in English as a As cultural and political-economic considerations remain crucial in understanding major aspects of both globalization and education, positionality and research ethics and reflexivity remain important research concerns, to understand globalization not just as homogeneity or oppressive top-down features, but as complex and dynamic local, global, and transnational intersections of people, ideas, and goods, with unclear impacts in the future. The next section examines the relationship between education and globalization as explored by the educational research community. 56. Normative views of globalization may be framed as skeptical, globalist, or transformationalist. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education, UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, Educational Administration and Leadership, Research on Globalizations Impact on Education, Educations Potential Impact on Globalization, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.52, The World Bank and Educational Assistance, European Studies and Research in Adult Learning and Education, Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Higher Education in India and Globally, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Asia, Globalization of Educational Knowledge and Research, Constructions of Justice, Marginalization, and Belonging in Education, Educational Attainment and Integration of Foreign Students in Spain. See for example, Report to the UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century (1996), Learning: The treasure within (Paris: UNESCO); Asia Society (2015), A Rosetta Stone for noncognitive skills: Understanding, assessing, and enhancing noncognitive skills in primary and secondary education (New York: Asia Society). A. Giddens (1990), The consequences of modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity), 64; see also D. Harvey (1990), The condition of post-modernity (London: Blackwell). There are many ways to frame the relationship between globalization and education. On the other hand, education is also held by scholars and political leaders to be a key to enhancing the modern (or postmodern) human condition, as a symbol of progress of the global human community, realized as global citizenship education, education for sustainable development, and related initiatives.44 The next subsections consider how globalization processes have been explored in educational research as shapers of education, and how education and educators can also be seen to influence globalization. As postcolonial educational theorists such as Paulo Freire have seen it, this education sought to remove and dismiss local culture as inferior, and deny local community needs for the sake of power consolidation of elites, and it ultimately served as a system of oppression on psychological, cultural, and material levels.40 It has been associated by diverse cultural theorists within and outside the educational field with the loss of indigenous language and knowledge production, with moral and political inculcation, and with the spread of English as an elite language of communication across the globe.41. By both culture and custom: Locating globalization ( Oxford: Blackwell ), Comparing race, class and..., with supervision systems organized by leading scholars in global studies in education in normative and ways! By both culture and custom from a historical view ( 1995 ), Handbook of into... To frame the relationship between education and globalization f. 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